CARE ABOUT FORESTS unifies EUROPEAN NATIONS. Preface Imantas Lazdinis introduction Remigijus Ozolin?ius
1. general CHARACTERISTICS OF LITHUANIAN FORESTS
Remigijus Ozolin?ius
2. FOREST CONDITION: assumptions of MONITORING implementation Remigijus Ozolin?ius
2.1. Causes of forest decline: hypothesis and research
2.2. Objectives of forest monitoring. International forest monitoring programmes
2.3. Forest monitoring as an integrated part of Lithuania?s environmental monitoring system
3. LOCAL FOREST MONITORING: CHANGES IN FOREST ECOSYSTEMS
3.1. Methods of local forest monitoring K?stutis Armolaitis, Edmundas Bartkevi?ius, Romualdas Juknys, Algimantas Raguotis 3.2. Forest monitoring in protected areas. Forest condition in National parks Algirdas Augustaitis, Almantas Kliu?ius 3.3. Forest monitoring in polluted areas
3.3.1. Affects of pollutants from J/V ?Achema? on forest ecosystems K?stutis Armolaitis, Edmundas Bartkevi?ius, Romualdas Juknys, Algimantas Raguotis, Janina ?epetien?
3.3.2. Affects of pollutants from J/V ?Akmen?s cementas? on the environment and forest condition K?stutis Armolaitis, Me?islovas Vai?ys, Algimantas Raguotis, Lilija Kubertavi?ien? 3.3.3. Affects of pollutants from J/V ?Ma?eiki? nafta? on forest condition Algirdas Augustaitis, Romualdas Juknys
4. REGIONAL FOREST MONITORING. forest monitoring Level I
Remigijus Ozolin?ius, Vidas Stak?nas
4.1. Main fields of survey and methods used
4.1.1. Estabishment of permanent observation plots (POP) and selection of sample trees
4.1.2. Tree condition assessment
4.1.3. Methods of soil sampling Me?islovas Vai?ys
4.1.4. Foliage analysis Laima Skuodien?
4.2. Tree condition parameters and trends of their changes
4.2.1. Defoliation
4.2.2. Dechromation
4.2.3. Visually identifiable damages to the trees
4.2.4. Changes of spatial patterns in tree defoliation
4.2.5. Condition of the main tree species and analysis of the changes
4.3. Results of forest soil monitoring Me?ialovas Vai?ys
4.3.1. Total amount of the elements. Sulfur, organic carbon, total nitrogen
4.3.2. Soil acidity. Exchange able cations
4.3.3. Heavy metals
4.3.4. Sensitivity of forest soils to technogenic pollutants
4.4. Chemical content of needles: dada interpretation Laima Skuodien?
4.5. Condition of Lithuanian forests in the context of European forest monitoring
5. INTENSIVE MONITORING OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS. forest monitoring level II Vidas Stak?nas, Remigijus Ozolin?ius 5.1. Selection, installation and design of intensive monitoring plots
5.2. Methods of forest condition assessment
5.3. Intensive monitoring of forest ecosystems: first results
6. INTEGRATED MONITORING OF FOREST ECOSYSTEMS
6.1. Objectives and tasks of the programme Romualdas Juknys
6.2. Parameters of the survey. Stations of the integrated forest monitoring Romualdas Juknys, Algirdas Augustaitis 6.3. Pollution of air, water, soil and biota
6.3.1. Air pollution and depositions Dalia ?opauskien?
6.3.2. Chemical content of soil and soile water Zenonas Gulbinas, Minijus Samuila
6.3.3.Heavy metals and radionuclides Algirdas Augustaitis, Darius ?eburnis
6.4. Conditions of forest flora
6.4.1. Stand condition and its changes Algirdas Augustaitis
6.4.2. Ground vegetation Valerijus Ra?omavi?ius
6.4.3. Lichen species diversity and abundance Almantas Kliu?ius
6.4.4. Abundance of green algae Algirdas Augustaitis, Almantas Kliu?ius
6.5. Evaluation of stand biomass. Amount of bioelements
Algirdas Augustaitis, Gintautas Mozgeris
7. FACTORS influencing FOREST CONDITION IN LITHUANIA Vidas Stak?nas, Remigijus Ozolin?ius 7.1. Visually identifiable damage and tree defoliation
7.2. environmental factors effecting tree condition: detection by defoliation type
7.3. Effects of air pollution and climatic factors on forest condition
8. FORESTS and MONITORING of regional ECOLOGICAL SUSTAINABILITY. State scientific programme ECOSLIT Leonardas Kairi?k?tis
8.1. Changes in biosphere and the importance of their monitoring
8.2. Lithuanian efforts to establish monitoring of regional ecological sustainability
8.3. Tasks and methodological assumptions for monitoring of a regional ecological sustainability 8.4. Environmental pollution and its spatial pattern in Lithuania
8.5. Trees, forests, animal species and humans as pollution indicators
8.5.1. Biomarkers in trees and search for a new methods of tree condition evaluation
8.5.2. Effect of pollution on fauna and human health
8.6. Financial losses due to anthropogenic pollution
8.7. Forests and ecological sustainability in the region
Summary
First activities of forest condition survey in Lithuania related to the registration and evaluation of stands damaged by pests, diseases and meteorological factors (snow, wind, etc.) were started a century ago. But long-term observation systems of forest development under changing environmental conditions - forest monitoring - were established just several decades ago. While talking about forest monitoring, it was thought to assess the effects of long-range trans-boundary air pollution on the condition of
forest ecosystems. Recently this opinion has been revised, because both from theoretical and practical points of view it is important to reveal not only the effects of air pollution, but also the effects of other factors influencing forest condition (for
example, game, fungi, insects, drought, poor silvicultural practices, logging etc.), as well. On the other hand, evaluation of air pollution effects is impossible without elimination of the factors mentioned above.
The following forest monitoring systems are defined in Lithuania now: Local, Regional, Intensive and Integrated forest monitoring. These forest monitoring systems are integrated parts of Lithuania?s environmental monitoring.
The main objective of Local forest monitoring, which is most often carried out in the vicinity of individual pollution sources or their complexes, is to evaluate and forecast changes in forest ecosystems on the local scale. Research of changes in forest ecosystems due to the air pollution in the vicinity of large industry plants, e.g. J/V ?Achema?, J/V ?Akmen?s cementas?, J/V ?Ma?eiki? nafta?, in Lithuania were started 20-30 years ago. The results of local forest monitoring indicate, that the effect of industrial pollutants on forests can be divided into acidifying and alkalising.
Under the effect of acidifying pollutants (SO2, Nox ir NH3) many components of forest ecosystems have been changed in the vicinity of J/V ?Achema?, J/V ?Ma?eiki? nafta?: tree increment and condition (radial and height increment decreases; average defoliation, number of dead and damaged trees increase; tree resistance to detrimental climatic factors and pests becomes smaller, etc.), epiphytic lichens (lichen coverage on stems decreases), epiphytic micro-flora (the number of ammonificating organisms, especially the bacteria Pseudomonas herbicola and oligonotrofils increase; small loads of pollutants encourages activities of denitrificators), and soil properties (they become more acidic; this led to an increased content of Al3+ and the leaching of K+, Ca2+ and Mg2+).
Forests are severely damaged only in the closest vicinity of pollution source, in the cases where the pollutants are alkalising dust (J/V ?Akmen?s cementas?). More remarkable changes can be identified in forest soils: due to the accumulation of calcium and magnesium forest soils are alkalised, this causes more intensive mineralisation of forest litter and peat. The number of ammonificators (bacteria and actinomicetes) increases, as well as the amount of denitrificators and anaerobic nitrogen fixing bacteria, and increased number of cellulose destroying bacteria intensifies the cellulose destruction.
According to the latest results of local forest monitoring carried out in National Parks of Lithuania (Auk?taitija, Dz?kija, ?emaitija and Kur?i? nerija), it can be clearly indicated that environmental pollution is not the only factor effecting significant tree condition changes in protected areas. Here wind snow, droughts and biotic factors (pests, disease and others) play a key role in the process of stand condition deterioration.
Regional forest monitoring is so called Forest monitoring Level I according to the ICP Forests programme. Lithuania has joined ICP Forests programme in 1987.
European countries, considering national forest coverage and territorial forest distribution, etc. have established an individual Regional monitoring network. The regular grid of permanent observation plots (POP) 4x4 km (963) was set up in Lithuania and modified later to 8x8 km (250 POPs). It was agreed, that Pan European forest monitoring network must be 16x16 km. According to the data of 1997, 27798 POPs were registered in Europe on the large scale monitoring grid net (74 POPs in Lithuania).
Long-term forest condition assessment, carried out according ICP Forests programme indicates, that only 18-20% of trees in Lithuania are relatively healthy (defoliation 0-10%). Slight defoliation (11-25%) is for the majority (50-60%) of trees moderate defoliation (26-60%) is common for 20%, and severe (61-99%) - for 1% of all trees. Annually 0.5-0.6% (on average) trees from the upper storey of the stand die. When forests are strongly damaged by pests the number of damaged trees becomes much higher. For
example, the highest number of damaged trees by bark beetles were stated in Norway spruce stands, in 1995 - 11.9%. Presently, it is suggested to consider trees as damaged, when defoliation exceeds 25%. There are about 20-25% of trees which have clear symptoms of condition decline in Lithuanian forests. Trees with 11-25% defoliation are considered to be in an warning stage, there is a majority of such kind of trees in Lithuania (50-60%).
Based on the results of Regional forest monitoring, it can be stated that during the period of 1989-1995, conditions of tree species were declining. This was caused by droughts of the summers of 1992 and 1994, and hurricanes during the winter of 1993, along with pest outbreaks (especially bark beetle) in 1992-1994. Norway spruce condition has remarkably declined especially due to the factors mentioned above. Trends of forest condition improvement can be followed since 1995. From the air pollution perspective on the European scale, Lithuania occupies an intermediate position between Central Europe where the highest air pollutant concentrations and depositions are stated, and Scandinavian countries where air pollution is one of the lowest in Europe.
The same can be said about average forest defoliation - the highest in Central European countries (Czech Republic, Germany, Poland), and the lowest in Scandinavian countries (Finland, Sweden, Norway).
Forest soil research indicates, that the largest content of sulphur and heavy metals in forest litter and forest soils can be found near ?iauliai, Kedainiai, Jonava and Vilnius, i.e., in the regions where industrial plants are concentrated. Forest soils most sensitive to technogenic pollutants were defined in western and southern parts of the country.
While analysing forest monitoring data, clear relations hip were not found between the changes of chemical content in soil and foliage, and tree conditions.
Detection of environmental factors influencing tree condition, according to the defoliation type, indicates that the main factors causing long-term forest condition changes in Lithuania are presumed to be predisposing and inciting. Factors such as, unfavourable climatic conditions, low level of air pollution, low soil moisture holding capacity, etc., could be considered.
In order to evaluate spatial effects of environmental quality on forest condition, the entire range of other factors(tree age, position in the canopy, soil humidity, etc.) must be eliminated. The original methodology for crown defoliation standardisation
was proposed. After defoliation data were standardised, it became clear, that the worst tree conditions are in the vicinity of the major industry centres, i.e., in central (Kaunas, Vilnius, Kai?iadorys, Jonava districts) and north-western (?iauliai, ? Ma?eikiai districts) parts of Lithuania.
Intensive monitoring of forest ecosystems - ICP Forests monitoring Level II. The main objective of this monitoring is to collect information about the effects of air pollutants and other damaging factors, on the most widespread forest ecosystems and better understand of the causality relationships among forest ecosystems and detrimental factors.
Intensive monitoring has been applied throughout Europe since 1994. Lithuania joined the programme the same year. Assessments carried out on 9 monitoring plots, indicated that most often tree condition decline is caused by a lack of nutrients in the soil,
hydro-thermal meteorological conditions and biotic factors (disease, pests, game).
Integrated forest monitoring, based on the monitoring of relatively closed forest ecosystems (stream catchments) started in 1992. Results of integrated forest monitoring, carried out in three stations (Auk?taitija, Dz?kija, ?emaitija), have indicated, that background pollution by sulphur compounds are decreasing and nitrogen are increasing. Forest ecosystems situated in the southern part of Lithuania (Dz?kija) are more heavily polluted by radio-nuclides (Cs-137 and Sr-90) and heavy metals.
Joint USA-Baltic programme - Forest Health Monitoring, which was started in Lithuania in 1994 and integrated into Regional monitoring systems has significantly contributed to improvements of forest ecosystems monitoring methodologies.
Not only forest monitoring data, but also the results of research projects are important for rational management of the environment. Such a multidisciplinary project uniting various studies of Lithuania?s environment, is State programme ECOSLIT.
After review of the research results within the framework of this programme, it must be noticed that over 80% of all pollutants in the country come from Western Europe. Decreases of average annual values of the stratospheric ozone layer (0.56% per year) and increases of ground level ozone concentrations (2.5% per year) cause a danger to all living organisms including humans. From local pollutants, heavy impacts in towns and along major roads are caused by transport emissions, especially benz(a)pirene. After the accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant, the amounts of radio-nuclides in the territory of Lithuania have increased by 40%, mostly in the south-western and western regions of the country. Presently there is an ongoing migration of radioactive pollutants (by the waters of rivers), sedimentation of radio-nuclides in the rivers, and the Baltic Sea from areas heavily affected by the Chernobyl accident. Slow decreases of radioactive contamination and migration of radio-nuclides to deeper layers in the soil creates a danger of genetic mutations. Suppression of human and animal immune systems, genetic mutations, diseases especially cancer, and high mortality rates become major problems within society.
In order to improve ecological situations in the country we have to seek intergovernmental compensation for long-range trans-boundary air pollution, encourage polluted air and water treatment, create an optimal land-use scheme for Lithuania where the Baltic Sea protective forest framework should be reflected and afforestation of ecologically sensitive unfertile soils should be foreseen.
Large amounts of attention should be paid to the improvement and maintenance of the forest monitoring system. As a result of the long-term forest ecosystem survey, ongoing processes in the environment could be better understood and predicted, and unexpected changes in the environment could be stopped.